Deconstructing the Media Framing of Terrorism

This research proposal seeks to explore how the media portrays terrorism and aims to challenge the current framing that shapes public perception. Specifically, the proposal will examine why Hamas militants are not framed as “terrorists” by BBC News in the United Kingdom and CBC News in Canada. Analyzing media narratives after 9/11, the research aims to uncover the biases and flaws inherent in defining terrorism and how political interests can influence the framing process. The proposal is organized into four sections: (1) Introduction to the problematic definition of terrorism and media framing, (2) Literature Review, (3) Research Methodology and Methods, and (4) Knowledge Mobilization and Ethics. Ultimately, this research is driven by a personal conviction and employs a rigorous methodology to deconstruct the media’s portrayal of terrorism.

Being a responsible global citizen, I feel driven to examine how the media shapes the discourse on terrorism. With the recent tensions between Israel and Hamas, I find myself particularly interested in understanding why BBC News and CBC News refer to Hamas as militants rather than terrorists. This topic is especially meaningful to me as a student studying digital journalism and as someone who has personally experienced the impact of terrorism in my native country of Sri Lanka. I am motivated to extrapolate my knowledge and understanding to shed light on the ongoing struggles with terrorism in different parts of the world.

It is crucial to have a basic understanding of terrorism. Akin to ideologies like communism, nazism, and fascism, terrorism involves the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, particularly against civilians, to achieve political goals (Cohen et al. 142). 

Furthermore, it is essential to define “framing,” which refers to the process of selecting certain aspects of a perceived reality and emphasizing them in communication to promote a specific definition of a problem, interpretation of its cause, moral evaluation, and recommendation for treatment of the issue at hand (Entman 52). 

Moreover, it is essential to acknowledge the inherent flaws in the mainstream media’s definition of terrorism. Daniel Byman elucidates that in the aftermath of the post-9/11 era, NATO forces led by the United States engaged in combat against terrorist organizations like Hezbollah, al Qaeda, and the Taliban. In contrast, Russia and Iran provided sponsorship to Hezbollah and the Taliban (Byman 101). Similarly, Pakistan supported al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan, aiming to destabilize regional powers in political, economic, and military realms (Waldman 11). The United States backed anti-Baathist groups in Iraq and Syria, while Russia supported opposition factions in the broader Middle Eastern region (Dekel, Udi, et al 30). This intricate context underscores the challenges in defining terrorism, as a group considered terrorist by one nation-state may be perceived as a legitimate entity by another.

It is important to note that the definition of terrorism is subjective and varies depending on one’s perspective. The US-led “Global War on Terrorism” after 9/11 was primarily a way for powerful nations to exert their influence, with non-state actors serving as proxies for their respective spheres of power. My research question examines how the media’s portrayal of terrorism has impacted individual rights and shaped certain narratives. News outlets have a history of labeling groups they view as morally unacceptable as “terrorists.” The BBC and CBC have come under scrutiny from critics in politics and journalism (Simpson, 2023; Fenlon, 2023) and are held to high standards. To maintain their credibility, they must strive for objectivity as much as possible.

By examining Dr. Robert Larabee’s (2023) literature review, I have expanded upon the work of previous scholars and sought novel approaches to interpret and fill gaps in prior research. After searching for the University of Ottawa’s Omni online database, with the keywords “defining and framing of terrorism,” I found a peer-reviewed article from 2002 authored by Professor Boaz Ganor, a renowned scholar and founder of the International Institute for Counterterrorism. This article provides valuable insights into the fundamental questions surrounding the definition of terrorism, which lays a theoretical foundation for my research. Ganor’s work explores the complexities of defining terrorism, challenging conventional counterterrorism orthodoxies. 

While some researchers believe that an objective, universally accepted definition of terrorism remains contentious among scholars, Ganor’s article vigorously asserts its feasibility and necessity for effective counterterrorism. Ganor highlights the subjective nature of terrorism definitions that vary from person to person. He clarifies the distinctions between terrorism and guerrilla warfare despite their similar objectives. For example, the guerrilla fighter focuses on military targets, while the terrorist intentionally targets civilians. Therefore, any organization that targets civilians cannot be considered “freedom fighters,” even if they claim to be fighting for national liberation (Ganor 287–304). Hence, this article emphasizes the dangerous nature of terrorism and its potential impact on global security, which is critical to my research objectives.

As part of my research, I investigated a peer-reviewed article from 1993 written by Professor Robert Entman, an expert in communication studies, journalism, and political science. Entman’s report provides a theoretical and in-depth survey of framing, which will help me in my research. By combining this article with Ganor’s scholarly work, I plan to contribute to the discourse on terrorism and media framing. 

In his article, Entman defines media framing comprehensively and masterfully. He uses the concept of framing to explain how it is used in various academic disciplines and clarifies its multiple applications. He also highlights the potential for communication to lay a foundation for research that can enrich social theory. This journal article supports my research argument about the significant impact of framing in communication and media studies.

As per John W. Cresswell, our worldviews are influenced by our disciplinary backgrounds, research experiences, and the guidance we receive from our mentors and advisors. This, in turn, affects the kind of research questions we ask related to our areas of interest (Cresswell, 2014, p. 6). When considering research topics, questions, and literature reviews, examining our disciplines for gaps in orientations that require attention is crucial. As such, I prefer a qualitative approach that involves understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem through an inductive style. My approach aligns with a Constructivist worldview, ethnographic design, and behavior observation (Creswell, 2014, p. 19).

This choice of methodology is rooted in a deep understanding of the complexities of my research topic. Hence, I have chosen qualitative research as my methodology. Chesebro and Borisoff define qualitative research as preserving and analyzing social action’s situated form, content, and experience without subjecting it to mathematical or other formal transformations (2007, p.12).  I have acknowledged that my research question revolves around societal dilemmas, individual experiences, and literary interpretation vis-à-vis the narratives of terrorism. Qualitative research allows me to delve deeply into the subjective, nuanced aspects of the topic, and it aligns perfectly with the Constructivist worldview. 

Brad Haseman points out, “the stark and abiding difference between quantitative and qualitative research lies in the way that research findings are expressed” (Haseman, 2006, p. 99). I have thus decided to exclude quantitative methods from my research methodology. These methods are designed for research based on objective theories and involve examining measured variables, often through instruments. They usually rely on pre-test and post-test measures of attitudes, which may not be appropriate for my research question (Creswell, 2014, p. 19). They are more suited for objective theories and examining measured variables, typically on mathematical instruments (Creswell, 2014, p. 3).

My research methodology, as per the suggestion of David Miller et al., involves conducting open-ended interviews with renowned experts who frequently share their opinions on terrorism in the mainstream Western media (Miller et al., 2009, pp. 414–437). To achieve this, I plan to conduct interviews with a group of experts via email and Zoom. I will ask them two questions: how do they define and frame Hamas to the Western mainstream media, and why do they do so? As all these experts belong to the Western traditional counterterrorist orthodoxy, I expect their responses to be similar. My research is meticulous and focuses on studying the relationship between media content, production processes, and broader power formations in the context of terrorism.

The method I have chosen aligns perfectly with the objectives of my research. It provides a platform to gain insights from distinguished experts, allowing me to connect the dots between media and terrorism. By integrating these interviews with more comprehensive studies of terrorism and political violence, I aim to provide a nuanced perspective on the subject matter.

In my research, I carefully examine the stories presented by Western mainstream media and consult with respected scholars. In the past, very few academics studied terrorism, which was not considered a topic of note in the social sciences. However, today, terrorism experts are frequently featured in mainstream media coverage of political violence. They are often utilized as a resource to fill news space even when hard evidence is lacking. It is important to note that terrorism studies have emerged as an academic specialism from previous work in areas such as war, revolution, and counterinsurgency.

The theory and practice of counterinsurgency was only developed after the Second World War concerning decolonization and the rise of the United States as a global superpower, and it is from this period that terrorism studies have been forged (Miller et al., 2009, pp. 414–437). Most importantly, since 9/11, there has been a significant increase in academic work and media coverage of terrorism, where the terrorism sector has increasingly become a profitable industry. To extract information on terrorism, these eminent experts employ aggressive, coercive, and robust interrogation methods of former members of terrorist organizations at prisons such as the Guantánamo Bay detention center.  

It is crucial to note that specific research methods may not align with ethical standards, as Elizabeth Miller (2009, p. 68) pointed out in her Indigenous Fathers Project. In this project, the community and researchers shared authority over data and its presentation. Miller emphasizes the need for “active roles” for participants, also reflected in the Indigenous concept of “Nothing about us, without us.” This collaboration is referred to as “Shared Authority.” 

In contrast, the methods used by terrorism experts can create more harm than good. Aggressive and coercive interrogation techniques can further alienate individuals who are already inclined toward radicalism. These methods lack mutual respect and shared authority, potentially harming participants and researchers. Against this backdrop, it is essential to note that my research findings may present risks to specific terrorist organizations and counterterrorism experts due to the sensitive nature of their rules of engagement. Nevertheless, the value of my research lies in its ability to differentiate between reliable and unreliable sources in both the media and academia.

I plan to present my research in the Journal of Critical Studies on Terrorism and its associated seminars. This includes the Canadian Security Association (CANASA) conference that is scheduled to take place in April 2024 in Laval, Quebec. My primary goal is to share valuable insights that can benefit institutions and scholars working in security, defense, intelligence, and counterterrorism.  To improve comprehension and knowledge mobilization, I plan to collaborate with a documentary filmmaker and a cartoon graphic artist to translate my research findings into intersemiotic visual formats that are easy to understand and engaging for a general audience.

Empirical research on terrorism is crucial for the international community as it provides evidence-based insights into the underlying causes, dynamics, and patterns of terrorist activities. Understanding the motivations behind terrorism, the organizational structures of extremist groups, and the factors contributing to radicalization is essential for developing effective counterterrorism strategies. Through empirical research, policymakers gain a nuanced understanding of the socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts that breed terrorism, enabling them to craft targeted policies that address root causes. Additionally, empirical studies contribute to identifying trends and emerging threats, facilitating international collaboration in intelligence-sharing and coordinated efforts to combat terrorism globally. 

Throughout our lifetime, terrorism has continued to pose a significant threat to humanity. It has affected numerous regions across the world, such as Israel and Gaza, Afghanistan and Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka, Iraq and Syria, and even Ireland and the United Kingdom. As someone researching this topic, I aim to assist public policymakers and individuals in the counterterrorism sector to combat terrorism effectively. Ultimately, a robust empirical research foundation is indispensable for formulating informed policies and fostering international cooperation, enhancing the collective ability to prevent, respond to, and mitigate the impact of terrorism on a global scale.

Featured image: United Airlines Flight 175 hits World Trade Center on  9-11 (September 11, 2001) by Robert J. Fisch via Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0.

Works Cited

Byman, Daniel. “How to Think About State Sponsorship of Terrorism.” Survival (London), vol. 65, no. 4, 2023, pp. 101–22, https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2023.2239060. 

Chesebro, James W., and Deborah J. Borisoff. “Makes Qualitative Research Qualitative?” Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, vol. 8, no. 1, 2007, pp. 3–14, https://doi.org/10.1080/17459430701617846. 

Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Fourth Edition., SAGE Publications, 2014.

Cohen, Shuki J., et al. “Al-Qaeda’s Propaganda Decoded: A Psycholinguistic System for Detecting Variations in Terrorism Ideology.” Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 30, no. 1, 2018, pp. 142–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2016.1165214.

Dekel, Udi, et al. “Mapping the Non-State Actors in Syria and Their Attitudes toward Israel.” Syria’s New Map and New Actors: Challenges and Opportunities for Israel, Institute for National Security Studies, 2016, pp. 25–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep17013.6. 

Entman, Robert M. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” Journal of Communication, vol. 43, no. 4, 1993, pp. 51–58, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x.  

Fenlon, Brodie. “How CBC News Uses the Words ‘terrorist,’ ‘terrorism.’” CBC, 16 Oct. 2023,www.cbc.ca/news/editorsblog/editor-in-chief-note-use-of-words-terrorist-terrorism-1.6997281.

Ganor, Boaz. “Defining Terrorism: Is One Man’s Terrorist Another Man’s Freedom   Fighter?” Police Practice & Research, vol. 3, no. 4, 2002, pp. 287–304, https://doi.org/10.1080/1561426022000032060. 

Haseman, Brad. “A Manifesto for Performative Research.” Media International Australia, vol. 118, no. 1, 2006, pp. 98–106, https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X0611800113. 

Healey, Kevin. “The Challenge of Media Research Ethics.” The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2013, pp. 65–86, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems173. 

Larabee, Robert, and University of Southern California. Research Guides: CMGT 540:  Uses of Communication Research: Literature Review. libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=235146&p=1561538.

Miller, David, and Tom Mills. “The Terror Experts and the Mainstream Media: The Expert Nexus and Its Dominance in the News Media.” Critical Studies on Terrorism, vol. 2, no. 3, 2009, pp. 414–37, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539150903306113. 

Miller, Liz. “Building Participation in the Outreach for the Documentary The Water Front.” Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 43, no. 1, 2009, pp. 59–86, https://doi.org/10.3138/jcs.43.1.59. 

Simpson, John. “Why BBC Doesn’t Call Hamas Militants ‘terrorists’ – John Simpson.” BBC News, 11 Oct. 2023, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67083432.

Waldman, Matt. The sun in the sky: the relationship between Pakistan’s ISI and Afghan insurgents. Harvard University, 2010.